November 2006

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Fall Is Good Time To Plant Or Move And Replant Perennials, Shrubs Or Trees By Carol Savonen, Oregon State University Do you have a small tree or shrub you want to move? Or have a space you'd like to fill in with a new perennial, shrub or tree? Mid-autumn is a good time to plant or move and replant landscape plants in most places in Oregon. The wet and mild conditions of October may help prevent transplant shock. When shrubs are brought home and transplanted, they may suffer varying degrees of shock. This may be from root loss (for field-grown plants) or the changes in care practices (for container-grown plants). Weather conditions and the condition of your soil can also have an impact on how well and quickly a plant adjusts to its new location. "The shock is mostly caused by the demand of the plant tops for water and the limited ability of the root system to supply it," explained Ross Penhallegon, horticulturist with the OSU Extension Service. "A plant's demand for water is less in cool and rainy fall weather, and the plant has a better chance of quick recovery, especially if it has a chance to develop new roots before the next growing season." Fall planting also gives the new plant time to establish the necessary root growth required to anchor it in the soil and time to build up nutrient reserves needed for healthy growth next spring. Locally grown nursery stock is available in most nursery and garden stores and many varieties of transplants are available. Penhallegon advises buying nursery plants grown in Oregon and adapted to local climates and soils. If you are digging up and moving a plant from one location to another, try to leave as much of the plant roots as possible. In many urban areas, gardeners will find that the soils are compacted and sometimes poorly drained. In these situations, you'll need to create a good root zone by amending the beds with sandy-loam topsoil and working up the soil as deeply as possible. Proper planting is the most important step. Many problems with a tree or shrub can be traced back to improper planting. Dig the hole at least two feet wider than the size of the root system or root ball. A large hole will allow better root growth and is especially important in compacted soils. Roughen the sides of the hole, which should be the same width at the top and bottom, and remove any rocks or debris. Planting depth is of critical importance. Trees often are planted too deep in the hole. Carefully set the tree in the hole at the same depth or slightly higher than it was at the nursery or in your yard. Plant it with the root collar at ground level or slightly higher (two inches) to allow for settling. If you replant at the exact ground level, eventual settling will put the growing crown below the level of the soil, allowing it to sucker. With balled and burlapped trees, support the root ball with your hands and gently place the tree in the hole to test for proper depth. Never drop the tree on the ground or in the hole as this disturbs the root ball and can break the roots. Container-grown trees often have roots growing around the inside of the container. After removing the container, gently straighten the roots. If they are not straightened they will eventually girdle the tree. If you plan on staking your tree, drive two wooden or metal posts along the sides of the hole before you backfill. This prevents you from accidentally driving the stakes through the root ball and damaging the root system. Fill the hole with soil about one-half full, lightly tamping it with your foot to remove any air pockets. Make sure the tree is standing upright and not leaning. Water the plant slowly to saturate the soil and remove any remaining air pockets, then finish filling the hole with soil. Remove any extra soil rather than mounding it around the tree. Build a temporary berm at the drip line to hold water around the root system. Amendments are additions to the soil that enhance its moisture-holding capacity, nutrient availability, or structure. Amendments include good loamy topsoil, peat moss, and various kinds of mulches. Most soils in Oregon &endash; except sandy soil, soil with high clay content, or soil that has been heavily disturbed by construction &endash; don't require amendments. Sandy soil, often found in eastern Oregon or along the Oregon coast, benefits from the addition of organic matter such as peat moss, compost or old sawdust to the planting hole to increase the soil's moisture-holding capacity around the roots. Additions of organic matter also help clay soil. This soil is easily compacted which obstructs the movement of water and air. Mixing in organic matter helps break up clay particles and improves water and air flow around the roots. Generally, the OSU Extension service recommends a ratio of one-third amendment mixed with two-thirds of existing soil for backfill. Use caution with non-composted animal manure, which may be hot from biological activity or high in salts. Contrary to popular belief, you don't need to fertilize trees when you plant them. Fertilizing with nitrogen in the fall may contribute to cold damage transplant shock. Never use lawn fertilizers in a planting hole. However, potassium and phosphorus may help the roots to establish. Slow-release fertilizers are good to use in the spring on fall-planted perennials, as they have a long lasting effect and are less likely to burn the roots than rapid release products, said Penhallegon. Newly planted trees require routine and thorough watering, particularly during Oregon's dry summer and fall months. Water the tree regularly for at least three years after planting. If you have moved a shrub, it might help the transplant shock to prune the shrub to make the branches and foliage on top match the size of the root system. Make sure the plant is well watered for one to three weeks after transplanting. Adding a layer of mulch around the base of the shrub will help prevent weeds from becoming established and help soil to retain moisture. Clean straw, clean manure, newspapers or a layer of black plastic are all good mulching materials. Autumn Rains Bring Plant Disease, Be Ready By Carol Savonen, Oregon State University Autumn rains bring welcome relief from high fire danger. But they also can be a harbinger of plant disease outbreaks in home gardens. Increased moisture means root rot diseases caused by the fungus Phytophthora, plant diebacks caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas and cankers of apple and cypress and a blight of Berckman's arborvitae, explained Jay Pscheidt, Extension plant pathologist at Oregon State University. And early autumn rains produce lots of different rots in late-ripening fruit crops like grapes and apples. Gardeners take heed: The transition from dry weather to wet weather is fast in the fall in many parts of Oregon. "The probability of rainfall at the beginning of October in the Willamette Valley is 20 to 25 percent," said George Taylor, Oregon's state climatologist based at OSU. "By the end of October, it's 55 percent. That's a big transition. By the end of the month, we will more likely have rain on any given day than not." Taylor recently released his forecast for this coming fall and winter. He said Oregonians can generally expect near-average temperatures from October through December &endash; with average or slightly above-average precipitation. Pscheidt said many of the fall disease problems associated with increased moisture can be ameliorated with basic sanitation practices in the yard. Rake up normally shed tree and shrub leaves and vegetable garden debris and compost them. Remove old fruiting canes off of caneberries such as raspberries, blackberries and boysenberries. Wait to prune stone fruits such as plums, cherries and peaches until mid-winter, as pruning now spreads Psuedomonas-caused cankers. Prune off and dispose of diseased plant tissue on perennials other than stone fruits to remove any spores and increase air circulation to healthy parts of the plant. Experts Give Tips For Winterizing Horses By Evelyn Boswell, Montana State University News Service Horse owners should start preparing for the winter during the summer, but what if they didn't have a chance or didn't realize the importance? They can still do several things to get their horses through a Montana winter, Rob Keene and Mike Wilson said at Montana State University's third annual equine conference. Keene is a veterinarian with IDEXX Pharmaceuticals. Wilson is a territory manager for Cargill Animal Nutrition. Together they spoke on "Winterizing your horse." Horse owners, for example, should assess the condition of their horses and consider how they're used, the speakers said. Are the horses athletes or pets? Are any of them pregnant? Is this their first winter? Horse owners can still decide what to do about lighting barns and using blankets. Whatever horse owners decide about winter care, they should be consistent, Wilson said. They should use common sense and adapt care to individual needs. For advice on specific horses, they should talk to their family veterinarian. The speakers also suggested that horse owners: Start thinking about their winter hay supply in July. "It will make your life so much easier and you will get good hay," Keene said. Consider several factors when trying to buy hay. Are the bales covered, for example? Did the bales get wet? If horse owners don't want hay from lowland areas, they should say so. Those bales might be good for cows, but not necessarily horses. Can they look at the hay before it's harvested? They should look for things like toxic plants and stage of bloom. Do they have to take bales at the bottom of the hay stack? Hay that contains as much as 10 percent dirt can be unsuitable for horses. Is this last year's hay? Is it bleached by the sun? Monitor hay consumption and water supplies when temperatures fall below zero. Check water heaters and cords for electrical shorts. Horses won't drink enough water if they're afraid of getting shocked when they dip their nose into a water tank. They can develop colic if they don't drink enough water. Decide what to do about blankets. Some horse owners like to cover their horses. Others stay away from blankets, because they want their horses to adapt to the cold. Don't over-feed pregnant horses. Even though they need 50 to 100 percent more calories than the normal maintenance horse, they don't need to become obese. "Too much fat on a mare isn't helping," Keene said. Horse owners, in general, should be able to feel a horse's ribs and not see them. It might be OK to see one rib, but three or more means the horse is probably too thin, unless it's an athlete. Weigh and measure hay and feed. Use scales, not coffee cans. Coffee cans come in different sizes, so feed recommendations that refer to coffee cans aren't necessarily accurate. Think about barn lighting. Sixteen hours of incandescent lighting can fool mares and stallions into thinking spring is coming. Continue providing dental care during the winter. All teeth must be level, but realize that incisors don't wear down as fast as cheek teeth. Long incisors prevent upper and lower check teeth from contacting each other, which causes inefficient eating. Grain dribbles, and hay is poorly chewed. Vaccinate for strangles, equine influenza and equine herpes. Strangles is a contagious, deadly disease that's difficult to eradicate. Equine influenza is an upper respiratory problem that's highly contagious. Equine herpes causes abortions and neurologic disease. Keene recommended vaccinating mares during the fifth, seventh and ninth months of their pregnancies. Deworm horses at least three times a year. The best times are 30 days after the grass greens up in the spring, mid-summer and after a killing frost. Research Holds Promise For Herpes Vaccine By Tracy Ellig, Montana State University News Service A study by a Montana State University researcher suggests a new avenue for developing a vaccine against genital herpes and other diseases caused by herpes simplex viruses. In a study published earlier this year in the Virology Journal, MSU virologist William Halford showed that mice vaccinated with a live, genetically-modified herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) showed no signs of disease 30 days after being exposed to a particularly lethal "wild-type" strain of the virus. In contrast, a second group of mice that received a more conventional vaccine died within six days of being exposed to the same "wild-type" strain. "We have a clear roadmap for producing an effective live vaccine against genital herpes," said Halford, who works in MSU's Department of Veterinary Molecular Biology. "Although my studies were performed with HSV-1, the implications for HSV-2-induced genital herpes are clear. Overall the two viruses are about 99 percent genetically identical." An estimated 55 million Americans carry herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), which causes genital herpes. Infection is life-long. Approximately 5 percent of those with genital herpes - 2 million to 3 million Americans - suffer outbreaks one to four times annually. A vaccine offering life-long protection does not exist. The key to Halford's research was understanding how the herpes simplex virus overcame the body's natural defenses. A cell infected with the herpes simplex virus sends a warning to neighboring cells. This warning&emdash;an interferon response&emdash;causes neighboring cells to enter "an anti-viral state" akin to putting on a suit of armor, Halford said. However, herpes produces a protein, ICP0, that tricks every infected cell into destroying its own armor. Once the cell's armor is gone, the virus can propagate itself and spread to other cells, which are in turn tricked into lowering their defenses. In his research, Halford created a vaccine where the genetic instructions that make ICP0 were disrupted. Without instructions on how to do its clever ICP0 trick, the virus can still establish an infection in animals, but the spread of the virus is stopped long before disease can occur. "In short, we can disarm the virus such that it is absolutely unable to cause disease, but is still remarkably potent as a vaccine," Halford said. In a human vaccine, the genetic instructions for ICP0 would actually be removed, creating an "attenuated," or weakened virus. The rest of the herpes simplex virus' genetic code would remain intact. Measles, mumps, rubella, polio and yellow fever vaccines are all made from attenuated viruses. Research in recent decades has focused on subunit vaccines, which are made from one piece of a virus (a protein subunit). Subunit vaccines are safer than attenuated virus vaccines because the subunit cannot replicate or cause disease. However, subunit vaccines have proven ineffective in protecting people against persistent infections like genital herpes and AIDS, Halford said. "From a theoretical standpoint, subunit vaccines are poor mimics of a natural virus infection," Halford said. "There's not enough there for our immune systems to build a protective response against the actual virus." Halford, 38, is aware that his approach is controversial. "This is where I'm young enough that I don't know how long it can take to swing popular opinion among scientists and clinicians," he said. "I would hope that in five to six years the scientific community would be willing to seriously consider these proposals." Halford hopes to find a commercial partner or secure government funding to advance his research toward a human vaccine. "I'd like to take this concept from the chalkboard to the clinics," he said. Contact: William Halford at (406) 994-6374 or halford@montana.edu, http://vmb.montana.edu/faculty/halford/.

Make Venison Jerky Safely From University of Idaho's HomeWise Tis the season for Idaho hunters to think about elk and venison jerky. Beverly Healy, University of Idaho Extension educator, wants them to know that simply dehydrating meat for jerky typically falls 20 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit short of killing food-borne disease organisms like salmonella and E. coli O157:H7. It pays to take an extra step in the kitchen&emdash;either by pre-cooking meat to 160 degrees Fahrenheit or by using a bacteria-thwarting vinegar-based marinade. Healy prefers the texture of marinated jerky over pre-cooked jerky. To prepare it, she adds 2 pounds of lean, quarter-inch-thick meat slices to 2 cups of vinegar and lets them soak for 10 minutes, stirring them occasionally to make sure the vinegar continually covers every strip. Meanwhile, she combines one-quarter cup of soy sauce, 1 tablespoon of Worcestershire sauce, one-quarter teaspoon each of black pepper and garlic powder, one-half teaspoon of onion powder and 1 teaspoon of hickory smoked salt and pours them into a 1-gallon resealable plastic bag. Then, she adds the meat slices and seals the bag, making sure once again that every piece of meat is thoroughly covered by the marinade. After refrigerating the bag for 1 to 24 hours, Healy removes the meat slices and lays them flat&emdash;in a single layer with no pieces touching&emdash;on a clean dehydrator tray or oven drying rack. Then she slips them into a dehydrator or oven that's been preheated to 145 degrees Fahrenheit for the past 15-30 minutes. The strips will dry in 10 to 14 hours, she says. Healy knows her jerky is done when it's chewy and leathery. "It's as brittle as a green strip but won't snap like a dry stick." To test a piece, let it cool slightly, then bend it. "It should crack but not break." According to Healy, properly dried jerky will keep in a sealed container at room temperature for about two weeks, in the refrigerator for three to six months and in the freezer for up to a year. Management Of Cheatgrass On Conservation Reserve Program Lands By Fabian Menalled Montana State University Extension Cropland Weeds Specialist Cheatgrass, which is also known as downy brome or by its Latin name Bromus tectorum, is an annual grassy weed. It usually germinates in the fall, over-winters as a seedling and continue growing as a "winter annual" in the spring. This early spring growth is followed by drying up four to six weeks earlier than native perennials, which is what contributes to cheatgrass' high rangeland fire potential. This non-native species was first introduced to the United Sates from Asia in packing material. Initially distributed along rail lines, it spread throughout many States including Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and South Dakota. Cheatgrass grows between four and 30 inches tall. It is easily recognized by its flat leaf blades densely covered with soft hair and its short ligules, which are thin membranous outgrowths at the junction of leaf and the main stem. At maturity, cheatgrass seedheads have three-eighths to five-eighths-inch-long purplish spikes or awns. Thanks to the way these awns easily attach to clothing or animals, cheatgrass seeds spread easily. Cheatgrass competes with more desirable plant species for moisture because of its winter and early spring growth habit. In many situations, cheatgrass can inflict significant economic costs, reducing crop yields and lowering weight gain of grazing livestock. In Montana, it is a difficult-to-control weed in small grain fields. It also invades federal Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)lands, which are intended for tame or native grasses, wildlife plantings, trees, filterstrips, or riparian buffers. In rangeland or CRP lands, use of Roundup (glyphosate), Journey (imazapic plus glyphosate), or Plateau (imazapic) provide management options for cheatgrass infestations. Roundup can be applied in established CRP to suppress competitive growth and seed production of cheatgrass and other undesirable annual grasses such as cereal rye and jointed goatgrass. However, applications should be done in early spring to prevent weed seed production. Care should be taken to only apply glyphosate to dormant grass to avoid risk of injury of desirable plant species. If perennial CRP grasses have initiated new growth, you could apply glyphosate at its lower recommended rate, but some growth stunting of CRP perennial grasses may occur. On CRP land, Journey provides pre- and postemergence control of a variety of weeds including cheatgrass, downy brome and medusahead rye. Journey may be used prior to planting desirable species on CRP land at rates up to 32 ounces per acre per year. For best results in cheatgrass control, Journey should be applied in late summer or fall before cheatgrass emerges and prior to planting desirable species, as it cannot be used after newly seeded desirable species have begun to emerge. Spring applications of Journey can increase consistency in cheatgrass control. However, these spring applications should be limited to areas without a large number of desirable plants. Plateau is a broad-spectrum herbicide that provides control of cheatgrass and other weed species including leafy spurge, foxtails, common lambsquarters and Johnsongrass in CRP and other noncrop areas. The selective activity of Plateau allows desirable native grasses and forbs to re-establish after treatment. For the most effective control of cheatgrass and other bromes, late summer or fall applications of Plateau herbicide, preemergent to germination, are highly recommended. In general, the integration of chemical management tools with cultural practices is recommended for successful weed control. However, in the case of CRP, cultural control is restricted. Cheatgrass seeds usually do not remain viable in the seedbank for more than two or three years in the soil. Thus, preventing seed production in the spring reduces the number of seeds in the soil and provides long-term weed management benefits. Disclosure. Common chemical and trade names are used in this publication for clarity by the reader. Inclusion of a common chemical or trade name does not imply endorsement of that particular product or brand of herbicide and exclusion does not imply non-approval. Viruses Intrigue Researcher By Evelyn Boswell, Montana State University News Service Joel Graff may be a Sunday school teacher on the weekend, but the rest of the week, he associates with thieves and monitors gossip. "It's enjoyable," said the Montana State University graduate student who refers to viruses as thieves and the communication system between cells as gossip. "Viruses steal everything from the cell&emdash;energy, parts and machinery," Graff explained. "Obviously, cells don't like that." To protect themselves, cells have a detection system. "There are always proteins in the cell looking for viruses," Graff said. "If they see a virus, they tell other proteins who tell other proteins, kind of like gossip. And just like gossip, instead of telling one protein, they tell multiple proteins who tell multiple proteins." The result is fairly quick, he said. Uninfected cells, once notified of a virus, go into an anti-viral state which makes them less susceptible to infection. The virus, however, has a counter plan. It has a protein that breaks down the protein-protein communication network. Without communication, there's no defense. His goal is to better understand how that occurs, specifically with rotaviruses and noroviruses, said Graff, who is working on his doctoral degree. Both viruses cause gastrointestinal problems, but rotaviruses infect newborn humans and animals. Noroviruses affect adults. "Rotavirus is both a human concern and an ag concern," Graff said. Graff doesn't understand everything yet, but his work with others in MSU's Department of Veterinary Molecular Biology has led to the publication of three scientific papers so far and two more papers in process. For those and other accomplishments, Graff was named MSU Rotary Student of the Month for September. Graff maintained a 3.67 grade point average as an undergraduate and a 3.95 grade point average as a graduate student, said the letter that announced Graff's selection. Graff majored in both biotechnology and biology as an undergraduate. He minored in biochemistry as well, and got involved in undergraduate research. In addition to that, he has been involved with the MSU Cat Cab program, the residence life program, MSU Ag Days and the MSU Majors Fair. He presented his research to state legislators during the 2001 session. "We are fortunate to have a student of your abilities and motivation at Montana State University," said the award letter signed by MSU President Geoff Gamble and Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs David Dooley. Mark Quinn, professor and head of the veterinary molecular biology department, wrote when he nominated Graff for the award that, "I have been acquainted with Joel for about eight years and can say without reservation that Joel is among the very best undergraduate and graduate students we have ever had at MSU. I have been associated with a wide variety of students from many departments during my 17 years at MSU; however, very few are of the exceptional caliber demonstrated by Joel." Graff, a Broadus native and the son of Steve Graff and Kathy Isaacs, credits his parents with encouraging his studies and providing an environment where hard work and long hours weren't unusual. "My dad always told me his job was to be a rancher," Graff said. "My mom's job was to be a banker. And my job was to be a student. "It has worked out well," he added. "It's a pretty good philosophy." After working 12-hour days, seven days a week during his summers on the ranch, everything else seems doable, Graff added. For now, that means helping wife, Jill, care for newborn son, Wally; working 40 hours a week; studying during the evenings and mornings; playing with dogs Moose Drool and Daisy Duke and cat Scout, and teaching Sunday school at the Bozeman United Methodist Church. His life beyond graduate school is uncertain, Graff said. "I would like to be a professor, but they seem stressed a lot of the time," he said. Otherwise, he could continue doing research by working in a government lab or private industry, Graff said. He likes research, Graff said, because "what I'm trying to answer hasn't been answered before. ... I like the fact that you are always thinking." How To Ripen Green Tomatoes Off the Vine By Carol Savonen, Oregon State University As autumn progresses, many green tomatoes will be left on the tomato plant vines, but don't despair. You can ripen "mature green" tomatoes by picking them and storing them off the vine. To test whether green tomatoes are mature enough to ripen off the vine, cut one in half with a knife. If the interior is yellowish and the tissues are jelly-like or sticky, it will probably ripen, says Ross Penhallegon, Oregon State University Extension horticulturist. Mature green tomatoes may also have a pink or reddish tinge on the blossom end. Tomatoes that are not yet to this mature green stage won't ripen off the vine. Immature green tomatoes have soft seeds that are easily cut through. The pulp is not yet jelly-like. Unripe tomatoes can be used for canning or fresh cooking. Place mature green tomatoes in thick straw or in shallow box in a room, shed or garage, where the temperature ranges from 55 to 70 degrees. They will ripen over a period of three to four weeks. Place newspaper between rows of tomatoes, or wrap them individually to prevent decay from spreading from fruit to fruit if you are storing them in boxes. Sunlight is not needed to ripen tomatoes; they ripen best in the dark. Tomatoes may suffer from chilling injury at temperatures below 50 degrees if held there for longer than two weeks, or at 41 degrees for longer than 6-8 days. Chilling injury may prevent your green, mature tomatoes from ripening and keep them from developing their full color and flavor. It may also cause them to spoil more rapidly. Remember to store only tomatoes that have not been exposed to frost. Cold damage, including frost and cooler temperatures, is cumulative and may have happened prior to harvest, out in the garden. Check your stored tomatoes every few days for signs of decay. Dispose of damaged fruit immediately, as rot can spread rapidly in storage. New Dean By Peg Herring, OSU Larry Curtis, a nationally known researcher in the field of environmental toxicology, has been selected as a new associate dean of the College of Agricultural Sciences at Oregon State University and associate director of the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station. Curtis's research focuses on persistent organic pollutants, and he has headed several studies focusing on water pollution, including major studies in the Willamette River. He brings experience in university departmental administration and a broad perspective on the role of research in health and environmental policy. Curtis succeeds Charles Boyer, who left OSU to become dean of the College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology at Fresno State University. Fair Dryland Leases Workshop Contact: Brian Tuck, Telephone: 541/296-5494 Dryland agricultural producers are well aware of the fact that their profit margins are shrinking every year. However, their standard lease agreements have not reflected increased costs of production and decreased prices of products. "Standard lease agreements are out of date and if tenant producers are going to survive, many of these lease agreements are going to have to be modified," said Herb Hinman, WSU Extension Farm Management Specialist. Dr. Hinman has developed a three-hour program for dryland producers and landowners to work together to create fair and equitable dryland lease agreements. Results from prior presentations in multiple counties indicate that for the first time in years, producers were able to negotiate significant changes in their lease arrangements. Locally, the Developing Fair and Equitable Dryland Lease Arrangements workshop will be held in Goldendale at the PUD building at 1313 S. Columbus Ave. on Nov. 28 from 2 to 5 PM. This program will be free and open to the public; no pre-registration is required. Light refreshments will be available. For more information about the workshop, contact WSU-Klickitat County Extension at 509/773-5817 or klickitat@wsu.edu. Extension programs and policies are consistent with federal and state laws and regulations on nondiscrimination regarding race, color, gender, national origin, religion, age, disability and sexual orientation. Evidence of noncompliance may be reported through your local Extension office. Persons with a disability requiring special accommodation while participating in Washington State University-Klickitat County Extension programs may call 509-773-5817 or 541-296-5494 in advance of the program. If accommodation is not requested in advance, we cannot guarantee the availability of accommodation on-site.

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